CONTENTS
Chapter Page
1 Introduction .......................................................................... 1
Background ............................................................................ 1
The Value of Energy Management ................................................................................... 2
The Energy Management Profession ............................................................................... 3
Some Suggested Principles of Energy Management ..................................................... 5
2 Effective Energy Management ............................................................... 9
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 9
Energy Management Program .......................................................................................... 9
Organizational Structure .................................................................................................. 10
Energy Policy ..................................................................................................................... 13
Planning ............................................................................................................................. 13
Audit Planning .................................................................................................................. 14
Educational Planning ....................................................................................................... 15
Strategic Planning ............................................................................................................. 16
Reporting ............................................................................................................................ 16
Ownership ......................................................................................................................... 17
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 17
3 Energy Auditing ............................................................................................. 23
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 23
Energy Auditing Services ................................................................................................ 23
Basic Components of an Energy Audit .......................................................................... 23
Specialized Audit Tools .................................................................................................... 33
Industrial Audits ............................................................................................................... 34
Commercial Audits ........................................................................................................... 36
Residential Audits ............................................................................................................. 37
Indoor Air Quality ............................................................................................................ 37
4 Economic Analysis .............................................................................................. 41
Objective ............................................................................................................................. 41
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 41
General Characteristics of Capital Investments ........................................................... 42
Sources of Funds ............................................................................................................... 43
Tax Considerations ........................................................................................................... 44
Time Value of Money Concepts ...................................................................................... 46
Project Measures of Worth ............................................................................................... 54
Economic Analysis ............................................................................................................58
Special Problems ............................................................................................................... 64
Summary and Additional Example Applications ........................................................ 69
5 Boilers and Fired Systems ......................................................................... 87
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 87
Analysis of Boilers and Fired Systems ........................................................................... 87
Key Elements for Maximum Effi ciency ......................................................................... 89
Fuel Considerations ........................................................................................................ 116
Direct Contact Technology for Hot Water Production .............................................. 122
6 Steam and Condensate Systems ........................................................................................... 125
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 125
Thermal Properties of Steam ......................................................................................... 126
Estimating Steam Usage and its Value ........................................................................ 133
Steam Traps and Their Application .............................................................................. 139
Condensate Recovery ..................................................................................................... 147
7 Cogeneration ................................................................................................ 155
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 155
Cogeneration System Design and Analysis ................................................................ 157
Computer Programs ....................................................................................................... 174
U.S. Cogeneration Legislation: PURPA ....................................................................... 176
Evaluating Cogeneration Opportunities: Case Examples ........................................ 178
8 Waste-Heat Recovery ........................................................................................ 193
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 193
Waste-Heat Survey ......................................................................................................... 201
Waste-Heat Exchangers .................................................................................................. 207
Commercial Options in Waste-Heat-Recovery Equipment ...................................... 211
Economics of Waste-Heat Recovery ............................................................................. 218
9 Building Envelope ..................................................................................................... 221
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 221
Principles of Envelope Analysis ................................................................................... 223
Metal Elements in Envelope Components .................................................................. 225
Roofs ................................................................................................................................ 230
Floors ............................................................................................................................... 233
Fenestration ..................................................................................................................... 234
Infi ltration ........................................................................................................................ 237
Summarizing Envelope Performance with the Building Load Coeffi cient ......... ...239
Thermal “Weight” ........................................................................................................... 240
Envelope Analysis for Existing Buildings ................................................................... 240
Envelope Analysis for New Buildings ......................................................................... 245
Updated Envelope Standards for New and Existing Construction ........................ 245
Additional Reading ........................................................................................................ 246
10 HVAC Systems ....................................................................................................... 247
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 247
Surveying Existing Conditions ..................................................................................... 247
Human Thermal Comfort .............................................................................................. 248
HVAC System Types ...................................................................................................... 249
Energy Conservation Opportunities ............................................................................ 259
Cooling Equipment ........................................................................................................ 269
Domestic Hot Water ....................................................................................................... 271
Estimating HVAC Energy Consumption .................................................................... 272
11 Electric Energy Management .................................................................................. 273
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 273
Power Supply .................................................................................................................. 273
Effects of Unbalanced Voltages on the Performance of Motors ............................... 274
Effect of Performance-General ...................................................................................... 274
Motor ............................................................................................................................... 275
Glossary of Frequently Occurring Motor Terms ........................................................ 275
Power Factor .................................................................................................................... 279
Handy Electrical Formulas & Rules of Thumb .......................................................... 281
Electric motor Operating Loads .................................................................................... 281
Determining Electric Motor Operating Loads ............................................................ 282
Power Meter .................................................................................................................... 282
Slip Measurement ........................................................................................................... 282
Amperage Readings ....................................................................................................... 284
Electric Motor Effi ciency ................................................................................................ 284
Comparing Motors ......................................................................................................... 286
Sensitivity of Load to Motor RPM ................................................................................ 290
Theoretical Power Consumption .................................................................................. 291
Motor Effi ciency Management ...................................................................................... 294
Motors Are Like People ................................................................................................. 294
Motor Performance Management Process .................................................................. 294
How to Start MPMP ....................................................................................................... 295
Nameplate Glossary ....................................................................................................... 298
12 Energy Management Control Systems .................................................................... 315
Energy Management Systems ....................................................................................... 315
Justifi cation of EMCSs .................................................................................................... 321
Systems Integration ........................................................................................................ 326
13 Lighting ................................................................................................................ 353
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 353
Lighting Fundamentals .................................................................................................. 353
Process to Improve Lighting Effi ciency ....................................................................... 367
Maintenance .................................................................................................................... 368
New Technologies & Products ...................................................................................... 370
Special Considerations ................................................................................................... 379
Daylighting ...................................................................................................................... 383
Common Retrofi ts ........................................................................................................... 385
Schematics ........................................................................................................................ 390
Glossary ............................................................................................................................ 397
14 Energy Systems Maintenance ......................................................................... ....401
Developing the Maintenance Program ........................................................................ 401
Detailed Maintenance Procedures ................................................................................ 413
Materials Handling Maintenance ................................................................................ .421
Truck Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................... 423
Measuring Instruments .................................................................................................. 426
Saving Energy Dollars in Materials Handling and Storage ...................................... 430
Recent Developments ..................................................................................................... 433
15 Industrial Insulation .................................................................................................. .437
Fundamentals of Thermal Insulation Design Theory ....................................... ........437
Insulation Materials ....................................................................................................... .439
Insulation Selection ........................................................................................................ .443
Insulation Thickness Determination ............................................................................ 448
Insulation Economics ..................................................................................................... 461
16 Use of Alternative Energy ........................................................................................... 471
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 471
Solar Energy ..................................................................................................................... 471
Wind Energy .................................................................................................................... 484
Refuse-Derived Fuel ...................................................................................................... .489
Fuel Cells .................................................................................................................. ........493
17 Indoor Air Quality ................................................................................................. 497
Introduction and Background ............................................................................... ........497
What is the Current Situation ....................................................................................... 499
Solutions and Prevention of IAQ Problems ............................................................... .500
18 Electric and Gas Utility Rates for Commercial and Industrial Consumers ................. 507
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 507
Utility Costs .................................................................................................................... .507
Rate Structures ................................................................................................................ 508
Innovative Rate Type ...................................................................................................... 509
Calculation of a Monthly Bill ........................................................................................ 510
Conducting a Load Study .............................................................................................. 513
Effects of Deregulation on Customer Rates ................................................................ 516
19 Thermal Energy Storage ......................................................................................... 519
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 519
Storage Systems ............................................................................................................... 521
Storage Mediums ............................................................................................................ 523
System Capacity .............................................................................................................. 526
Economic Summary ........................................................................................................ 532
20 Codes Standards & Legislation ................................................................................ 539
The Energy Policy Act of 1992 ...................................................................................... 539
State Codes ....................................................................................................................... 540
Model Energy Code ........................................................................................................ 541
Federal Energy Effi ciency Requirements .................................................................... 541
Indoor Air Quality Standards ....................................................................................... 542
Regulations & Standards Impacting CFCs .................................................................. 543
Regulatory and Legislative Issues Impacting Air Quality ........................................ 544
Regulatory and Legislative Issues Impacting Cogeneration & Power ................... 545
Opportunities in the Spot Market ................................................................................ 546
The Climatic Change Action Plan ................................................................................ 547
21 Natural Gas Purchasing ............................................................................................. 549
Preface .............................................................................................................................. 549
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 550
Natural Gas as a Fuel ..................................................................................................... 553
Buying Natural Gas ........................................................................................................ 566
New Frontiers for the Gas Industry ............................................................................. 575
22 Control Systems ............................................................................................. 577
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 577
Why Automatic Control? ............................................................................................... 577
Why Optimization? ........................................................................................................ 578
Technology Classifi cations ............................................................................................ 578
Control Modes ................................................................................................................. 580
Input/Output Devices ................................................................................................... 584
Valves and Dampers ....................................................................................................... 586
Instrument Accuracy, Repeatability, and Drift ........................................................... 588
Basic Control Block Diagrams ....................................................................................... 589
Key Fundamentals of Successfully Applied Automataic Controls ......................... 590
Operations and Maintenance ........................................................................................ 592
Expected Life of Control Equipment ........................................................................... 592
Basic Energy-saving Control Applications .................................................................. 594
Advanced Energy-saving Control Applications ........................................................ 594
Facilities Operations Control Applications ................................................................. 594
Control System Application Pitfalls to Avoid ............................................................. 601
Costs and Benefi ts of Automataic Control .................................................................. 601
Estimating Savings from Applied Automatic Control Systems ............................... 601
Conclusion and Further Study ...................................................................................... 605
Glossary of Terms ........................................................................................................... 616
23 Energy Security and Reliability .......................................................................... 621
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 621
Risk Analysis Methods ................................................................................................... 624
Countermeasures ............................................................................................................ 630
Economics of Energy Security and Reliability ............................................................ 632
Links to Energy Management ....................................................................................... 633
Impact of Utility Deregulation ...................................................................................... 634
24 Utility Deregulation and Energy System Outsourcing ........................................... 637
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 637
An Historical Perspective of the Electric Power Industry ........................................ 637
The Transmission System and The Federal Regulatory Commission's
(FERC) Role in Promoting Competition in Wholesale Power ........................ 638
Stranded Costs ................................................................................................................ 639
Status of State Electric Industry Restructuring Activity ........................................... 640
Trading Energy—Marketers and Brokers ................................................................... 640
The Impact of Retail Wheeling ..................................................................................... 640
The Ten-Step Program to Successful Utility Deregulation ....................................... 641
Aggregation ..................................................................................................................... 643
In-house vs. Outsourcing Energy Services .................................................................. 643
25 Financing Energy Management Projects ........................................................ 649
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 649
Financial Arrangements: A Simple Example .............................................................. 649
Financial Arrangements: Details and Terminology ................................................... 652
Applying Financial Arrangements: A Case Study ..................................................... 653
"Pros" & "Cons" of Each Financial Arrangement ........................................................ 664
Characteristics that Infl uence which Financial Arrangement is Best ...................... 665
Incorporating Strategic Issues when Selecting Financial Arrangements ............... 666
Glossary ............................................................................................................................ 666
26 Commissioning for Energy Management ............................................................. 671
Introduction to Commissioning for Energy Management ....................................... 671
Commissioning Defi nitions ........................................................................................... 671
The Commissioning Process in Existing Buildings ................................................... 672
Commissioning Measures ............................................................................................. 680
Ensuring Optimum Building Performance ................................................................. 695
Commissioning New Buildings for Energy Management ........................................ 702
Additional Information .................................................................................................. 704
27 Measurement and Verifi cation of Energy Savings ............................................... 707
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 707
Overview of Measurement and Verifi cation Methods .............................................. 711
28 Ground-source Heat Pumps Applied to Commercial Buildings ................................... 755
Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 755
Background ...................................................................................................................... 755
Introduction to Ground-source Heat Pumps .............................................................. 756
About the Technology .................................................................................................... 757
Application ...................................................................................................................... 767
Technology Performance ............................................................................................... 771
Hypothetical Case Studies ............................................................................................. 774
The Technology in Perspective ..................................................................................... 781
Manufacturers ................................................................................................................. 783
For Further Information ................................................................................................. 785
29 Sustainability and High Performance Green Buildings ....................................... 793
Beginnings ....................................................................................................................... 793
Sustainability Gives Rise to the Green Building Movement .................................... 794
Introducing the LEED NC Rating System: A Technical Review .............................. 798
LEED for Existing Building Rating System (LEED-EB) Adopted in 2004 .............. 801
Summary Discussion of Two New LEED Programs ................................................. 804
The LEED Process ........................................................................................................... 805
ASHRAE Guides Developed to Support LEED ......................................................... 808
Appendix I—Thermal Sciences Review ....................................................................................... 815
Appendix II—Conversion Factors and Property Tables ............................................................ 837
Appendix III—Review of Electrical Science ............................................................................... 887
Index ................................................................................................................................................... 901
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